Our planet is known as the blue planet, over 70% of it is covered in water, most of which is the Ocean.
This water shapes our landscapes, influences where life thrives, affects the health of our Ocean and the weather in our skies.
The Ocean is always closer than you may think (not in a sinister, about-to-jump-out-at-you way. Itโs more of a realising-it-is-Thursday-and-the-weekend-is-only-round-the-corner-kind-of-way).
Take a moment, think: what is different from the water you drank this morning (if you havenโt had any, this is your reminder to drink some) and the water lapping up a warm tropical beach? Every drop of water, from whatโs come out of your tap to the water five kilometres deep in the middle of the Pacific, is connected.
It is all just at different points in the water cycle.
How does the water cycle work?
There are four processes that drive the water cycle: evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.
Water is warmed and evaporates, becoming water vapour. Amongst the many good things plants do, they release water into the atmosphere through transpiration. These two processes are responsible for putting water vapour in our air, our atmosphere.
Water vapour is invisible.
The steam we see when we boil the kettle (or the clouds in the sky) is water becoming liquid again, on contact with the cooler air. That is condensation, the transition back from gas to liquid. When enough of this cloud cools and turns to water, it will clump together and fall as precipitation (snow, hail and rain).
How is the Ocean connected to the water cycle?
This water then starts its journey back to the centrepiece of the cycle: the Ocean.ย
The Ocean holds 97% of the Earthโs water โ approximately 1.34 billion cubic kilometres. 86% of evaporation is from the Ocean, and 78% of precipitation re-enters the Ocean, directly. You canโt have the water cycle without the Ocean.ย
Ice holds 2% of global water and just 0.001% is in the atmosphere โ that is all the clouds in the sky.ย ย
But if we add all that up, thereโs a little still on the table โ or more accurately, on land. That is the groundwater, lakes, swamps and the rivers. Rivers make up only 0.0002% of the total water on Earth.
What does the water cycle do? Why is it important?
There are five main points of importance for the water cycle:
1. Regulating Climate:ย ย The water cycle helps distribute heat around the globe, influencing weather patterns and climate conditions. It absorbs and releases energy during evaporation and condensation, which affects temperature and weather.ย
2. Sustaining Ecosystems: The water cycle provides the water necessary for plant growth and supports all forms of life by delivering freshwater to ecosystems through precipitation.
3. Shaping Landscapes: The water cycle contributes to erosion and sedimentation, reshaping geological features over time.
4. Circulating Minerals and Nutrients: Water transports minerals across the globe, enriching sea and soil and supporting plant life.
5. Maintaining Freshwater Supplies: The cycle replenishes freshwater sources, such as rivers and lakes, which are essential for human consumption and agriculture.
Imagine a world without a water cycle โ what would it look like?
How is the water cycle changing?
Human activity is interfering with the hydraulic cycle at every stage.
Deforestation means less trees to transpire and absorb rainfall. Urbanisation interrupts drainage and can increase surface runoff. When it rains, the water that would have been absorbed by the ground now hits tarmac and runs down the road.
The single greatest threat to the water cycle, and therefore to all life on Earth, is climate change.
How is climate change impacting the water cycle?
Climate change is intensifying the hydraulic cycle. Higher temperatures lead to more evaporation, more water vapour in the atmosphere, which results in more intense storms and rainfall. At the same time, droughts are becoming harder to predict and more severe.
These changes directly threaten our lives.
2024 Summary Report โ Global Water Monitor
Water is the life blood of our planet, and the water cycle is the pulse that keeps it alive.
The hydraulic cycle regulates our climate, fertilises and maintains our ecosystems and shapes our world. We are changing it through our actions and activities.
Understanding this cycle is the first step, but acting to protect it is the most important. The question is: what will we do to safeguard the blue heart of our planet?
Everyone knows the Ocean is salty. But how did it get salty? Where did the salt come from? Is it getting more salty?
These are all great questions to bring up as you ask for the salt over dinner. And after this explainer, you can answer them.
Why is the Ocean salty: Explained
Imagine a bowl. Now pour some slightly salty water into the bowl and put it into the sun on a hot day. Eventually, the water will evaporate, leaving that little bit of salt behind.
Now, add some more slightly salty water to the bowl. The left-behind salt dissolves and mixes, making saltier water. Leave it in the sun again, the water will evaporate and leave salt behind. If you now attach a constant stream of slightly salty water into the bowl, you have a little model of our Ocean.
Just like in the above example, rivers (the stream) bring tiny amounts of salt into the Ocean (the bowl) and the sun evaporates the water, leaving behind the salt. These amounts have built up over huge periods of time.
Where does the salt in the Ocean come from?
Most of the salt in our Ocean comes from rocks on land. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves into rainwater, making it slightly acidic. When it rains, this slightly acidic water can dissolve the rocks it falls on and over, in the form of ions (charged molecules).
These ions, mostly sodium and chloride, are carried into rivers, which carry them into the Ocean.
Some salt also comes from volcanic activity, where elements from the Earthโs core can be released into the Ocean through underwater volcanoes and hydrothermal vents.
Why arenโt rivers salty?
Rivers are, very slightly salty. Depending on what the water has run over on its journey (rocks, decomposing plants, your exโs belongings etc.), the contents of each river, including salt levels, varies.
For water to be considered freshwater, its salt content must be less than 0.05% salt (saltiness is also commonly shown as parts per thousand or ppt: 0.05% is 0.5ppt). This means freshwater can still have a little salt in.
Between 0.05 and 3% salt content is brackish water, and saltwater is between 3 and 5% salt. Above 5% (or 50ppt) salt is brine.
What are the saltiest bodies of water in the world?
One of the saltiest bodies of water is the Dead Sea. It was cut off from the river Jordan by damming in the 1950s, so there is no significant freshwater input. This means the water is gradually disappearing, as the water level drops close to 1.21 metres (4 feet) every year.
Think back to our bowl of water example โ the water evaporating leaves its salt behind, so the sea is getting more salty. Salinity is roughly 337ppt (33.7% salt) โ ten times the average of the Ocean.
But it isnโt the saltiest โ that title goes to the Gaetโale Pond in Ethiopia. It is a volcanic spring, with a salinity of 433ppt. You wouldnโt want to swim there – CO2 bubbling up presents the risk of suffocation and the hot, acidic water could leave painful burns.
Gaetโale Pond photo by A.Savin
Does the Ocean vary in saltiness?
Yes. Where there is more freshwater entering the Ocean, itโs less salty. This can be in places that rain a lot, have lots of rivers entering, or have ice melting. On average the Ocean has a salinity of 35 ppt.
Have a look at the picture below. The red areas show high salinity, purple areas are low salinity. Try and work out why each area is the colour it is.
Snapshot of salinity on 2 March, 2025 as observed on SOTO.
The Baltic Sea is very enclosed, has lots of river input and rain, and little evaporation, so the Ocean surface can be around 10ppt. The Red Sea is much higher, 40ppt. This is due to very little rain or river input, and high evaporation.
Is the Ocean getting saltier?
The Ocean is now more in balance. If we go back to our bowl example, there is a bit we didnโt tell you about. Salt can mineralise at the bottom of the bowl โ solidifying into rock, leaving the water. The amount of salt that mineralises is the same as the amount entering, so the Ocean stays the same level of salty.
So, with the next salty mouthful of Ocean water you get โ thank the rocks and the rivers (and the rain and the sun).
Galรกpagos Under Threat: Conservation, Climate Change and Hope
Share this page
Copied
Approximately 926 km (575 mi) off the coast of Ecuador lie the Islas Encantadas: the Enchanted Islands.
Better known as the Galรกpagos Islands, this collection of islands is named after the tortoises that once covered their shores.
Now, fewer in number (reduced to 15,000 from an original 250,000), these giant shelled residents reflect the degradation that the islands are experiencing.
However, not all hope is lost. As our knowledge and appreciation of these incredible ecosystems has advanced, the Galรกpagos tortoise and the Galรกpagos Islands are becoming successful conservation stories.
What is so special about the Galรกpagos Islands?
Below is a quote from the renown naturalist Charles Darwin. He is attributing the inspiration of his theory of evolution to the animals of the Galรกpagos Islands. Indeed, they are described as a โlaboratory for evolutionโ, as they have a small number of species in distinct habitats, making them easy to study.
Explore who Darwin was and how the Galรกpagos featured in his work here.
โI have been now ever since my return engaged in a very presumptuous work and which I know no one individual who would not say a very foolish one.
I was so struck with distribution of Galรกpagos organisms and with the character of the American fossil mammifers (AKA mammals) […] At last gleams of light have come, and I am almost convinced (quite contrary to opinion I started with) that species are not (it is like confessing a murder) immutable.โ- C Darwin, 1844 to Hooker
Starting with Darwinโs visit in 1835, the islands have continued to be a focal point for scientific research and tourism.
Carrying his legacy are Peter and Rosemary Grant in 1973. The two scientists lived the dream, moving to a remote island and watching birds. They studied the finches of the Galรกpagos and how populations responded to environmental conditions (for example, drought). Their observations were the first measurements of evolution in action.
Made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, the Galรกpagos Islands are a place that showcases the wonders of the natural world.
The unique species capture the imagination. They also act as a reminder of the stewardship humans have for our natural world.
What threats do the Galรกpagos face?
The Galรกpagos biosphere face human-made threats. Invasive species, direct human impacts such as building and pollution, climate change and overfishing all contribute to the decline of the species that make the islands unique.
How do invasive species threaten the Galรกpagos Islands?
Humans have explored the world, linking remote places like never before, and with us, we have brought some hitchhikers. According to the Charles Darwin Foundation, there have been 1,978 introduced species in the Galรกpagos, and of these, 1,898 have become established on the islands.
Some were intentional: early pirates left goats and pigs on the islands as a food source they could come back to. Later, ornamental plants were brought for gardens, and cats and dogs for companionship.
Others were stowaways. Rats and fire ants are two examples that managed to catch a ride into this haven, via ships or in delivered goods.
This has made life harder for the residents. The Galรกpagos tortoises now have to compete with herds of goats for the vegetation they eat and hatchlings can be attacked by fire ants, cats and rats. Blackberry bushes out-compete native plants, killing off more food for the tortoise. Spanish cedars (a mid-sized tree) grow in thick stands making it challenging for the tortoises to gain access.
Their world is changing faster than they can keep up with.
What direct human impacts affect the Galรกpagos?
More people live on and visit the Galรกpagos islands than ever before. The population has grown by 300% since 1990 and in the first half of 2024 alone the Galรกpagos accepted 142,473 visitors.
As humans settle, we use land for agriculture and residence, reducing the land available for resident animals. This phenomenon is called land-use-change and is one of the biggest threats to global biodiversity today.
How is pollution impacting the Galรกpagos Islands?
The islands waste collection grew 66% over the last decade to 28.6 tonnes per day, which needs shipping back to the mainland.
But it is the waste that isnโt collected that causes more of an issue. According to Plastic Pollution Free Galรกpagos, over 8 tonnes of plastic is removed from the beaches each year, and 38 species have been entangled in or ingested plastic. Much of this plastic pollution this comes from the mainland, following the same route as the residentsโ ancestors.
How is climate change impacting the Galรกpagos Islands?
The Galรกpagos thrives because of the Ocean surrounding it. Fed by nutrient-rich currents from the deep, the Ocean is full of life.
However, climate change is slowing Ocean circulation, increasing the acidity and lowering oxygen levels of the water, reducing the amount of food supporting life on these islands. It also interferes with El Nino.
What is the El Nino event?
El Nino is anaturally occurring event, characterised by changes in Ocean upwelling and climate.
Climate change is predicted to vary the strength and frequency of this event. Species on the Galรกpagos islands have adapted in incredible ways to deal with El Nino. For example, marine iguanas can shrink; reabsorbing bone mass, to deal with the scarcity of food.
Climate change has major influence over the way our planet functions, coupled with the loss of population and resilience caused by other factors, populations will be stressed more than before.
How does overfishing impact the Galรกpagos?
The waters of the Galรกpagos are exceptionally rich and contain some of the highest densities of reef fish anywhere in the world.ย ย
We suspect this could be the location whale sharks come to give birth โ hidden around the Galรกpagos could be the nursery for baby whale sharks!!ย
Fishing has destroyed the majority of the coral reefs in this archipelago (an extensive group of islands), and sharks are targeted for their fins.ย Hammerhead populations have seen a 50% decline since 2000. 13 of 28 species tracked over the last 20 years have declined sharply.ย
In 2020, the tag of a whale shark called Hope suddenly logged fast movement above the surface of the water, indicating she had been caught by a fishing vessel. In 2017, a fishing boat containing the fins of 6,620 individual sharks was seized.ย ย
The fish lover in us doesnโt like this. Losing sharks and habitats can disrupt the ecosystem, meaning less fish for feeding people. Most people like people, so most people also wonโt like this.ย ย
What is being done to protect and restore the Galรกpagos Islands?
But the Galรกpagos is proving we can make a difference.
As a focal point for nature and evolution, it is only fitting that the Galรกpagos Islands are also a focal point of conservation efforts.
Tourism is utilised to support the islands, with an entry fee of $200 per person. 40% of this goes directly to conservation efforts, ensuring the attraction of the islands is preserved by those attracted to it.
Conservation efforts in the Galรกpagos:
Conservation efforts use camera traps, satellite tags and intense gardening to give the natives a hand.
The Galรกpagos Conservation Trust is spearheading an incredible citizen science project, Barcode Galรกpagos, aiming to describe the genetic profile of all species in the Galรกpagos. Employing local people, the venture will enable identification of new invasive species, tracking of the health of the Galรกpagos and tracking of illegal pet or shark fins.
In light of the impacts of overfishing, Ecuador has protected 198,000 square km in the Galรกpagos Marine Reserve, including a 30,000km2 area where any fishing is prohibited. Research is being used to guide fishing practices. The aims are to reduce by-catch (the accidental trapping of unwanted marine creatures by commercial fishing nets) and waste. This ensures sustainable fishing practice, producing more fish with less effort.
For our Galรกpagos tortoises, new conservation efforts aim to eradicate the invasive species threatening them, and even bring back species that were driven to extinction.
Genetic analysis of surviving tortoises on the islands has found traces of Floreana tortoises, a species declared extinct in the 1850s. Through selective breeding programs, the Floreana Giant Tortoise could soon be roaming the islands again.
Project Co-Galรกpagos targets a growing global issue โ dependence on tourism and how to make it more environmentally friendly. Co-Galรกpagos aims to be the global example of developing local communities in symbiosis (what a great word) with nature.
What does symbiosis mean? Symbiosis the interaction of different organisms living in close physical association, but in benefit to them both.
How does the Galรกpagos help us protect our world?
Our abilities to understand the natural world have increased since Charles Darwin first sketched a marine iguana. We know and understand so much more about the Galรกpagos Islands, and the world, than we once did.
This enables us to better protect it. The Galรกpagos are a unique environment due to their isolation, distinct habitats and rich biodiversity. They give us a microcosm of our planet. Charles Darwin realised this, and the islands gave him a chance to better understand the world by observing them.
Now, our world is changing, and again the Galapagos is the perfect place to understand the effects of those changes.
The Galรกpagos Islands have provided inspiration in our understanding of the natural world, they are giving us the chance to understand how best to protect it.
Charles Darwinโs Galรกpagos Voyage and Theory of Evolutionย
Share this page
Copied
A fresh breeze, the sounds of gulls calling, cold sea spray touching the cheeks, the slightest hint of rotten eggs in the air.
What was going through the mind of 26-year-old Charles Darwin on 15 September 1835, as he stood on the deck of HMS Beagle with the shapes of the Galรกpagos islands approaching?
His letters home suggest two things. First, that he was homesick. Understandable after nearly four years away from England, which he had left at 22 years old โ he truly was the pioneer of the gap year. He was also incredibly excited.
What Charles Darwin observed during his five week visit to the Galรกpagos would plant the seeds that would eventually grow into his Theory of Natural Selection.
In this article we will explore who Darwin was, how he came to be on the Galรกpagos, and the sparks of inspiration that he found there for his theory of evolution.
Who was Charles Darwin? How did he end up on the Galรกpagos?
Charles Darwin was nearly a little-known priest in Shropshire, in England. His father wanted Charles to get good employment, either following his footsteps to become a doctor or to become a man of the church. Aged 16, his father sent him to medical school in Edinburgh. His foray into the medical world was brief, however. After witnessing the brutality of surgery without anaesthetic (on a child), Charles knew he was not to be a doctor. He left the course after only two years.
In those two years, Edinburgh did give him some important foundations; Darwin was taught geology, biological classification and taxidermy. He was also exposed to the radical ideas of the day. These denied the Divine design of humans and suggested that animals shared human mental abilities, like thinking, remembering or making decisions.
HMS Beagle image from The Popular Science Monthly, Volume 57
On leaving Edinburgh he went to Christs College, Cambridge University, to complete a degree and take holy orders โ ministry beckoned. He breezed through the degree and enjoyed his time at Cambridge. He would go out drinking, shooting and beetle collecting. College folklore claims the sounds of his shotgun would ring out as he fired blanks to extinguish candles in his rooms.
It was at Christs that he met Professor John Stevens Henslow. Professor Henslow encouraged discussion around natural philosophy and introduced Darwin to some of the greatest minds of the era.
It was Professor Henslow who got Charles Darwin on the voyage to the Galรกpagos. The Professor had been approached to be a naturalist and gentleman companion to accompany Captain Robert FitzRoy on a ship called HMS Beagle. His wife was… unwilling to let him go, so he instead recommended his protege, Charles Darwin.
What was the mission of the HMS Beagle?
The Beagle was sent on a two-year mission to map South America. It ended up being a five-year circumnavigation of the globe. Captain FitzRoy had completed a similar mission the year previous, and had thought a โnaturalistโ would benefit the scientific productivity of the voyage. Few could argue with the scientific output of the Beagle.
It was the Ocean that really started Darwinโs thinking about evolution.
While at Edinburgh Charles Darwin would collect sea slugs and sea pens, and was mentored by Robert Grant, an expert on sponges who encouraged him to study marine invertebrates. He began exploring classification and gave talks on his findings at the university.
Sea pen image via Britannica
Onboard the Beagle, he made himself a plankton net with which he drew up trawls full of Ocean life. He wrote, โMany of these creatures, so low in the scale of nature, are exquisite in their forms and rich colours. It creates a feeling of wonder that so much beauty should be apparently created for such little purposeโ.
If the accepted worldview of the time was correct, and God made everything for humankinds’ benefit, why do these tiny organisms exist out at sea where no one sees them? The Ocean was creating Darwinโs first glimmers of insight.
What are the Galรกpagos Islands?
About 1,000km off the coast of Ecuador in the Pacific, are a group of islands called Islas Encantas, or Enchanted Isles. They are better known as the Galรกpagos.
The initial descriptions of the islands are at odds with the image of โenchanted islandsโ. The first man to discover the Galapagos, Fray Tomรกs de Berlanga, speaks of the inhospitality and lack of water on the islands.
Captain Fitzroy, leader of the expedition Charles Darwin was part of, describes the first viewing of the Galapagos: โBlack, dismal-looking heaps of broken lava, a shore fit for pandemoniumโ. Darwin himself compares them to the iron-foundries of Staffordshire, or the furnaces of Wolverhampton. Hardly flattering for either party.
So, not a tropical paradise.
The word galรกpagos comes from the Spanish word for saddle, the shape of some of the shells of the most famous residents of the islands โ tortoises.
Darwin reported that locals could determine the island tortoise by the shape of its shell. The implications of this did not occur to Darwin until later.
Unfortunately for science, and the tortoises, they were an excellent food source for long voyages. The Beagle collected 50, none of which made it back to England. Tortoises became extinct on the island of Floreana in the 1840s, just ten years after Charles Darwin’s visit. However, careful genetic analysis and targeted breeding has created the possibility of de-extinction (click here for more).
The names of the islands and the tortoises immediately hint at the special nature of the Galรกpagos.
From their discovery, the Galรกpagos were renowned for their rich biodiversity.
Whalers came to benefit off the many sperm whales that gathered there, and tales of the lizards that lived there reached across the globe.
It is important to clarify that Darwin was not struck with a bolt of genius immediately on seeing the islands.
He was inquisitive, curious and observant about the natural world. He saw many things in the Galรกpagos, and documented and collected evidence he would later use to build and justify his arguments for evolution.
But what was Charles Darwinโs theory of evolution?
Darwinโs thinking was radical at the time. He was opposing the accepted position that species were โfixedโ – unchanging. This was tied into the strong Christian influence of the time โ God had created all life, and it hadnโt changed since โ with humankind superior to all.
His work was an attack on the accepted views of his time: that man was supreme by divine making, and the order of the world was fixed.
Observing the animals of the Galรกpagos and beyond, Darwinโs theory of natural selection proposed that the natural world was ever-changing, evolving.
Within this, the idea that species change over time. Further, he suggested a world in which animals were not below humans, but simply different, surviving using different strategies.
Darwin himself recognised that his theories opposed widely held beliefs. He likened publishing his work to confessing a murder.
What did Charles Darwin find on the Galรกpagos?
Darwin was in the archipelago (an area that contains a group of islands) for five weeks. During that time, he explored the islands, at one stage camping for nine days with only a few others, and collected specimens.
Birds, reptiles, plants and plankton were all stashed in crates on board the Beagle. He was intrigued by what he found, writing in his journal, โthe natural history of these islands is eminently curious, and well deserves attentionโ.
Whatโs the deal with Darwin and finches?
If you have heard of Darwin, you have probably heard something about finches. He collected loads of finches from the Galรกpagos, and they became an iconic example of his theory of natural selection.
The birds would even come to be named after the naturalist โ Darwin’s finches.
Drawing of the finches by John Gould, from “Voyage of the Beagle” , 1845
Far from being an example of his genius, the finches are an example of Darwin being human.
He misidentified many of the finches he collected as blackbirds, wrens and โgross-billsโ, and did not write down which bird came from which island. It was ornithologist John Gould of the Zoological Society of London who reported that this collection were all finches.
After this realisation, Darwin looked again, and the differences in their beaks does lead him to comment โone might really fancy… [that] one species had been taken and modified for different endsโ. However, his poor documentation meant they could not be used as evidence in his work, and they do not appear in his book.
Modern work has made the beaks of finches a poster child for natural selection. It was a clear visual example of the adaptions that can allow different animals to survive.
On the Origin of Species: Darwinโs work, published
Darwin held the Galรกpagos dear for the rest of his life. On TheOrigin of Species, his seminal work on natural selection, was not published until 1859, 23 years after returning to England.
The first sentence of the book affirms the importance of the voyage in developing his theory of evolution:
โWhen on board H.M.S. โBeagle,โ as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of speciesโthat mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers.โ
In the interim, Darwin had been gathering evidence and forming arguments, bracing for the backlash and interrogation his theory would receive.
Page from the 1859 Murray edition of the Origin of species by Charles Darwin.
How was Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution received?
Darwin’s theories certainly made a splash.
The book sold out the first edition before being released, and divided opinion.
Predictably, the Church took a strong stance against it, along with some prominent scientists such as Darwinโs former Cambridge peer, Adam Sedgewick. International press put out cartoons and insults, often focused on the idea that humans descended from apes.
But many scientists, especially geologists, supported Darwinโs work. Atheists were especially enthusiastic.
Charles Darwin kept in close correspondence with supporters and opponents alike. Debate continued for decades after, until his theory was general accepted in the 1940s.
The book went to six editions during Darwinโs lifetime and is now seen as one of the most important scientific books ever written.
It fundamentally changed how people viewed the natural world and the place of humans within it; a lifetimeโs work, from a man that explored and observed, inspired by the Ocean and the Galรกpagos.
Quotes from Charles Darwin: Even the best scientists have bad days
We can all relate to Darwin, on a very personal level, after reading some of his journal inserts and letters. Here are a few quotes that remind us even the brightest minds have down days:
โBut I am very poorly today & very stupid & hate everybody & everything.โ – C. Darwin, letter to Charles Lyell 1861
โI am rather low today about all my experiments, – everything has been going wrongโ – Letter to W. D. Fox 1855
โI beg a million pardons. Abuse me to any degree but forgive me- it is all an illusion (but almost excusable) about the Bees. I do so hope that you have not wasted any time for my stupid blunder. – I hate myself I hate clover & I hate Bees-โ Letter to John Lubbock, 1862
โI am very tired, very stomachy & hate nearly the whole world. so good night, & take care of your digestion which means Brainโ – Letter to T. H. Huxley, 1860
Thank you to Prof David Norman of Christโs College for his time and writing.
What is the UN Ocean Decade: Everything you need to know
Share this page
Copied
We’re halfway through the UN’s Decade of Ocean Science
2025 is the year NASAs Artemis III mission hopes to land the first people on the moon since 1972, we’ll welcome the year of the Snake in the Chinese New Year, there will be a total eclipse visible across some of North America, Greenland and Europe โ and 2025 marks the halfway point in the Ocean Decade.
Its vision is encapsulated in the phrase, โthe science we need for the Ocean we wantโ.
The aims of the Ocean Decade are;
Stimulating Ocean science and knowledge generation
Creating new opportunities for sustainable ecosystem development
Accelerating the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14: Life Below Water which is all about conservation and sustainable use of the Ocean
Fostering international cooperation in Ocean science.
That is a lot of long words to say, the goal of the Ocean Decade is to put the Ocean front and centre.
How is the Ocean Decade helping the Ocean?
The UN has identified key Ocean Decade challenges and set targets to address them. 10 Ocean Challenges, aiming for 7 Outcomes of collective impact.
Hereโs a simplified breakdown of the challenges (in reverse order just to keep you on your toes).
Challenge 10:Restore societyโs relationship with the Ocean Challenge 9:Skills, knowledge, technology and participation for all As the great Jacques Cousteau said, โpeople protect what they loveโ. Restoring a link between people and the Ocean, instilling stewardship through education, is key to improving its health.
Challenge 8:Create a digital representation of the Ocean Challenge 7: Sustainably develop the Global Ocean Observing System 7 and 8 offer how to deepen that knowledge of the Ocean and use technology to further it and share it. Making models, exploring further and donโt forget to tell everyone about it.
Challenge 6:Increase coastal resilience to Ocean and coastal risks Challenge 5: Unlock Ocean-based solutions on climate change We can enlist the Ocean as an ally. It already absorbs up to 89% of our excess heat and has taken up 40% of carbon dioxide emitted. However, intensification of storms and rising sea levels threaten communities closest to the sea. Challenges 5 and 6 look at the practicalities of our relationship with the Ocean.
Challenge 4:Develop a sustainable, resilient and equitable Ocean economy Challenge 3: Sustainably nourish the global population Beyond that, our Ocean can be a cornucopia, providing food and resources. To ensure it is, these two aim to tackle the management and guidance needed to avoid a harmful relationship with the Ocean and benefit everyone.
Challenge 2:Protect and restore ecosystems and biodiversity Challenge 1: Understand and beat marine pollution Finally, Ocean Decade challenges 1 and 2 aim to protect and restore. Undo the harm that has been done to our Ocean, and tackle how it is still being damaged.
For a healthy planet, we need a healthy Ocean.
These challenges cover the full range, from prompting a sense of responsibility in people to tackling the specific threats.
The goal is simple โ nurture an Ocean that is healthy, resilient, clean, productive and safe, but also predictable, accessible and inspiring. These are the outcomes the Ocean Decade targets. (Read: Why is the Ocean so important?)
We are all part of the Ocean Decade
Ocean Generationโs mission is to bring the Ocean to everyone, everywhere.
We translate complex Ocean science into engaging content and run three youth engagement programmes for 3 โ 25-year-olds. Our Ocean Intelligence approach is endorsed by UNESCO as an Ocean Decade Project; making us part of Ocean Decades solutions. (Which challenge are we meeting?).
Look through the challenges, see if you can engage with any.
UN Ocean Decade: First look complete
Over the coming year, weโll check in with the Ocean Decade. We will explore the plans it has, discover how it ties in with the different elements of the work we do, and summarise the progress it has made in a final check up at the end of the year.
COP29 finished on the 24th November 2024, after two weeks of tough, technical negotiations.
It was full of colouring books, expensive sandwiches and drama! Letโs break down the COP29 outcomes: the wins and disappointments โ and have a look across to COP16 (the biodiversity one) too.
COP29 was held in Baku, Azerbaijan and was painted as the โfinance COPโ with the hopes of a climate finance deal being agreed.
Hold up โ what is climate finance? Broadly speaking, climate finance refers to any money โthat seeks to support mitigation or adaption actions that will address climate changeโ – UNFCCC (remember what it stands for? Spoiler: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
Richer countries โ often referred to as the Global North (that also includes Australia, Israel and New Zealand) – have emitted the vast majority of the CO2 that is responsible for climate change. As of 2019, the Global North have emitted 2.5 times their fair share of the emissions allowed for 1.5 degrees of warming.
Countries in the Global North industrialised much earlier than the Global South, making a lot of money at the cost of carbon dioxide emissions. It has been called for, and agreed, that the richer countries should provide money to the developing countries, to allow them to develop without emitting so much CO2.
Furthermore, thereโs a loss and damage fund to help countries most affected by climate change. Many of the countries most vulnerable to the effects of climate change (sea level rise, droughts, heatwaves, floods, intense storms etc.) are poorer countries.
What were the themes of COP29?
So, what actually happened this year? Letโs explore a few of the themes that came from the COP29 summit this year.
Presents and petrol stations.
Countries have their own stands – as an opportunity for cultural sharing and integration. Many gave out gifts: Georgia handed out some wine tasters, the UK provided coffee.
Go to the Russian stand and you could pick up an ecological colouring book, full of tips for environmental sustainability. Some were slightly cynical, as it was produced by a major fossil fuel company.
Fossil fuels were present throughout COP29. Azerbaijan, the host country, is a country with 90% of its exports comprised of fossil fuels. The capital, Baku (save that for the pub quiz) houses the very first industrial oil well and was the world’s first oil town (dating back to the 1840s).
For the second year running, COP was attended by more fossil fuel lobbyists than the ten most climate change vulnerable countries‘ delegations combined. The host nation Azerbaijan, next yearโs host Brazil and one of the countries competing for COP31 presidency, Turkey, were the only countries with more attending.
Although the 1,773 attendees from fossil fuel companies made up only 1.5% – there were only three countries with more.
Should discussions around climate change happen in the house of the industry most responsible for the damage?
Or does it represent an opportunity to engage and include those most capable of changing our world?
Al Gore said, “It’s unfortunate that the fossil fuel industry and the petrostates have seized control of the COP process to an unhealthy degree.”
Or, as Oil Change International member David Tong said: โIt’s like tobacco lobbyists at a conference on lung cancer.โ
The president of Azerbaijan made headlines this year describing oil and gas as โa gift from Godโ. This was denounced by a multitude of faith groups. And the Brazilian environment minister Marina Silva said: โWe should take care in moderation of the gifts we are given – if we eat too much sugar, we get diabetes.โ
A report published during COP highlighted that eight fossil fuel companies had paid at least $17.6 million to Meta (which owns Facebook and Instagram) alone for pushing their posts โ 700 million impressions, all within the last year.
Activism has always been a big part of COP.
It presents an opportunity to make voices heard by the decisionmakers and gives a platform to send big messages.
Attendees of the COP29 summit were welcomed by a realistic, full-sized model of a dead sperm whale on the waterside in Baku. Created by Belgian art collective Captain Boomer, the piece hopes to highlight โthe disruption of our ecological systemโ.
In the run-up to COP29, the cop29.com website was acquired by Global Witness, which called for fossil fuel CEOs to pay for the damage they have done to the climate.
There was a protest outside BP headquarters in London, and a number of demonstrations in Baku, including a large snake, with the message โweed out the snakesโ – aimed at the fossil fuel attendees.
COP29: Agreements and outcomes.
After two weeks, and running over by 34 hours, COP29 closed with a number of agreements. What did all the sleepless nights in smelly conference halls produce? (at one point the plumbing failed, filling the corridors with the smell of you-know-what).
There were finally some numbers for climate finance – $1.3 trillion per year, needed by 2035. This number is based in the recommendations of the Independent Expert Group on Climate Finance (IHLEG). โAt leastโ $300 billion of this is to come from developed countries. The rest could come from a range of sources including private finance and taxes on cryptocurrency, airplane tickets and the super-rich โ known as solidarity levies.
There was no agreement reached on how to take the Global Stocktake from COP28 forward, so it was pushed back to COP30 next year.
Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, describing โcarbon marketsโ, was finalised, marking the last element of the Paris Agreement to be completed, although it was not agreed on. This just means that the text has been written, but countries have not yet signed on the dotted line.
The reaction to COP29 has been, optimistically, mixed.
The focus, following on from the expectations coming into COP29 (finance COP), has been on climate finance. The amount pledged by the Global North has come under fire: โA paltry sumโ and โa jokeโ by delegates from India and Nigeria respectively.
However, some took a more positive view. Marshall Islands climate envoy Tina Stege said, โit isnโt nearly enough, but it is a startโ. An observer was quoted by the Carbon Brief as saying, โmomentum was neither lost nor gained, just maintainedโ so overall, it achieves โa passing gradeโ.
UNFCCC (remember what that stands for?) Executive Secretary Simon Steill said:
โThis new finance goal is an insurance policy for humanity, amid worsening climate impacts hitting every country. But like any insurance policy โ it only works โ if premiums are paid in full, and on time. Promises must be kept, to protect billions of lives.โ
$300 billion per year, it has been widely agreed, is not enough. But the creation of a deal is a good step and could be enough to spur on the further investment required from private finance and new sources, such as carbon markets and new taxes.
Outside the negotiating rooms.
Beyond the walls of formal negotiations, there were some big developments.
Indonesia, the 8th biggest emitter of CO2, unexpectedly pledged a complete phase out.
Mexico was the last G20 country to not commit to net zero, but did during COP29.
UK and the EU joined 30 nations in an agreement to slash emissions further, specifically targeting methane emissions.
Chinaโs influence grew in the absence of strong US leadership. It announced the opening of the largest wind farm in the world.
Some NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions) announced: UK pledged a reduction of 81% against 1990 levels by 2035. Brazil announced a 59-67% reduction against 2005 levels.
At COP29, over 70 events were hosted in the dedicated Ocean Pavilion over the two weeks.
What happened at COP16 (the biodiversity summit)?
Just 10 days before the first delegates landed in Baku, COP16 wrapped up in Cali, Columbia. This followed very similar themes. It was focused on money. Specifically, where to find the money required to tackle biodiversity loss and restoration.
The Cali Fund was established and though limited in being entirely voluntary with debated scope, can be a positive step.
Another main objective for COP16 was the updating National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, and unfortunately only 44 countries out of 196 had done so by the end of the conference.
119 countries submitted national biodiversity targets, building on the work of the Global Biodiversity Framework agreed on at COP15.
COP16 formally recognised the importance of indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLCs) to conservation efforts, creating a body to amplify their voices in the CBD.
At COP16, the Ocean was prominent in a way not previously seen.
The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) pushed for progress. The Maldives announced14% protection of their coral reefs with more protection pencilled in. The Azores announced the largest MPA network in the North Atlantic, protecting 30% of its waters.
Parties approved a new process to identify ecologically or biologically significant marine areas (EBSAs) (bet you thought we were done with new acronyms).
This doesnโt guarantee protection but can guide the creation of marine protected areas (MPAs) in areas that will be most effective, including the high seas.
Generally, the progress made for the Ocean was received very positively.
COP29 and COP16: the transition from negotiation to actions.
Awareness, knowledge and respect for the natural world is growing. Frustration at pace of progress is evident throughout the process, from those in the room to those hearing the news. We need to appreciate how far we have come, while also maintaining the push onwards.
What was top of the COPs?
Tops
Nots
Agreement to triple climate finance to $300 billion
Amount falls far short of that hoped by developing countries
Carbon markets approved after a decade of trying
Fears of carbon markets being misused in bad offsetting and fraud
Cali Fund established
No mandatory contributions โ entirely voluntary, no guarantees
Loss and Damage Fund should be operational in 2025, and has $730 million pledged
No further progress on last year’s Global Stocktake โ phasing out fossil fuels
Mexico and Indonesia surprise with net zero and emission cutting announcements
Some countries and parties obstructing progress
China announces more voluntary contributions to climate finance
Brazil has made it clear it intends to make COP30 a โNature COPโ. If it can maintain momentum, COP29 has given foundation for the transition into tangible action.
These big global treaties can feel very far away, and it can seem that there is nothing you or I could do. But we are the key parts of this puzzle. Appreciate every small action you take.
Turn down your heating by one degree this winter โ barely enough to notice but saving a lot of emissions.
Be conscious of what you eat โ choosing local, seasonal food can be your difference.
Get talking. You are already doing something important โ staying informed. Having conversations with other people, making people more aware, is a crucial part of the process. Engage with us! We love to hear the actions you are taking, and we will answer every question sent our way.
Everything you need to know about COP: COP29, COP16s and the things between
Share this page
Copied
Heard a lot about the COP conferences but not sure whatโs going on? Acronyms got you all in a twist?
Welcome to a white-knuckle ride into climate-summit world, where we explain everything you need to know about COP.
What is COP?
COP is our first acronym (can be written as Cop or all in caps). It stands for Conference Of the Parties, the name given to the group of countries (Parties) all coming together to make big decisions.
It consists of negotiations between representatives, presided over by the host country. Theyโre also used as a platform for scientific developments and activism: talks are held, and papers are released aiming to maximise impact.ย ย
Why are there multiple COPs?
COP is most used to refer to the COP of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – the big annual summit on climate change. The 2024 edition was the 29th summit, so it is known as COP29 โ easy!
But COP can be used to describe the meetings held for other conventions too.
2024 also had the COP for the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) in October and the COP for the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in December. Both of these are biennial (one every two years) and meeting for the 16th time, so both are known as COP16 โ useful (not).
The three COPs were all created at the UN Earth summit in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, so are known as the โRio Conventionsโ or more informally the Rio Trio. They aim to tackle three major threats to humanity โ climate change, biodiversity loss and desertification.
The Paris Agreement was negotiated at COP21 in 2015. Youโll never guess where. It’s a legally binding (means enforceable by law) agreement with the primary goal of keeping global average temperature well below 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels.
The basic plan? Every country gradually ramps up their climate actions, detailed in Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). NDCs are refreshed every five years, and the next round are coming in 2025 โ watch this space.
The Agreement also provides a framework of support between countries. Financial, technological and capacity building support is guide lined to enable and encourage cooperation.
Countries also established an enhanced transparency framework (ETF) for gathering relevant data, which will then feed into the Global Stocktake, the progress report for our climate. The Global Stocktake will be published every five years, with the first released last year at COP28.
What does COP mean for the Ocean?
This depends which COP you are talking about.
Climate change is a global threat, against which the Ocean has acted as our shield for years. The Ocean absorbs excess heat and carbon dioxide, maintaining our biosphereโs balance. Ocean acidification, marine heat waves and intensifying weather patterns are just some symptoms of a stressed system.
The Ocean is our biggest ally against climate change and the actions at COPs can safeguard our Ocean. While they are not specific to the Ocean, the decisions made at COP can decide the health of our Ocean ecosystems.
The CBD COP (the biodiversity one) is more directly linked to the Ocean: at COP15 the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework officially set the target to protect 30% of countries land and seas by 2030, known as the 30×30 agreement.
Read more about the agreements made at COP29 and learn more about the outcomes of COP16 here.
To provide the best user-experience for our website, we use cookies. Consenting to these allows us to process data such as browsing behaviour on our site.
Functional
Always active
Technical storage or access strictly necessary for the legitimate purpose of enabling the use of a specific service on our site.
Preferences
The technical storage or access is necessary for the legitimate purpose of storing preferences that are not requested by the subscriber or user.
Statistics
Technical storage or access that is used exclusively for statistical purposes.The technical storage or access that is used exclusively for anonymous statistical purposes. Without a subpoena, voluntary compliance on the part of your Internet Service Provider, or additional records from a third party, information stored or retrieved for this purpose alone cannot usually be used to identify you.
Marketing
Technical storage or access is required to create user profiles to track the user on a website or across several websites for similar marketing purposes.
What if ยฃ5 could send you on an once-in-a-lifetime Arctic voyage?
The lucky winner, and their guest, will enjoy up to 15 unforgettable days sailing through icy glaciers while spotting whales and polar bears on a sustainable adventure.
