What can Antarctic ice cores tell us about the history of our climate? 

What can Antarctic ice cores tell about the history of climate

Ice cores are the key to the ancient climate and can help us unlock the mysteries of the future 

Scientists can drill into ice sheets to obtain a cylinder of ice, called an ice core.

Ice cores are “time capsules” of the climate. Over time, annual and seasonal snow with different chemical compositions, particulates (like dust), and bubbles of air are compressed into ice.  

What-can-Antarctic-ice-cores-tell-about-the-climate
Credit: Bradley R. Markle via Eos

Scientists are asking the core questions 

One of Antarctica’s ice cores, Dome Concordia, shows the climate record for the past 800,000 years through the Quaternary period (2.58 million years ago – present).  

Annual temperatures are estimated using oxygen’s heavy (O18) and light (O16) varieties, called isotopes. When atmospheric temperatures increase, more energy is available to evaporate water containing more O18 from the Ocean. This water is precipitated in Antarctica and turns to ice. Scientists can relate the isotopic ratio in an ice layer to the temperature.

Trapped air is analysed for which/how much atmospheric greenhouse gases were present annually. Scientists can estimate carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) to determine the degree of global warming. 

Using this data and more, scientists can piece together past climates.  

Ice cores are key to ancient climate: Explained by Ocean Generation.

What’s the story, ice cores?

Ice cores tell us that the climate swings between stable bounds of warm interglacials happening every 100,000 years which last 15,000 – 20,000 years, and cold glacials (ice ages).

Ice cores show these key events:   

1. 800,000 years ago in the Pleistocene, ice cores show an interglacial Earth. The glacial-interglacial pattern continued from here… 

2. 430,000 years ago, the Mid-Brunhes Event marked the sudden increase in the temperature range of climate cycles.

3. The penultimate deglaciation event, seen in Antarctic ice cores extends from 132,000 -117,000 years ago.

4. From 24,000 – 17,000 years ago, the Earth was glacial, with temperatures 20°C below pre-industrial levels.

5. Deglaciation began 16,900 years ago, punctuated with tiny ice ages, called the “Bøllering-Allerød” and “Younger Dryas”, thanks to the “bi-polar seesaw” (the Northern Hemisphere cools whilst the Southern Hemisphere warms and vice versa).  

6. 15,000 years ago, ice sheets began to shrink. This heating continued into the Holocene (the official period of geological time which we currently live in)  

7. This interglacial’s temperature peaked between 14,500 and 14,000 years ago

What ice cores tell us about ancient climate.

8. From 13,800 – 12,500 years ago, Antarctica experienced a Cold Reversal, where temperatures plummeted.  

9. The Holocene interglacial began 11,000 years ago, with temperatures fluctuating between warm and cold again.  

10. 1,000 years ago, the Medieval Warm Period allowed crops to flourish, cities to rise, and populations to more than double. 

11. The Little Ice Age, from the 14th-19th centuries, caused Viking colonies in Greenland to fail.  

12. 1750 – the Industrial Revolution began. Ignorant to environmental consequences, humans started emitting greenhouse gases.  

13. Scientists mark 1800 as initiating the Anthropocene, an unofficial epoch where humans effect the climate more than natural forcings.

14. Humans have continued global warming at an unprecedented rate. Summer 2024 was the world’s warmest on record. August was the 13th in a 14-month period where global average temperatures exceeded 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

Is the past a mirror of the future? 

Levels of greenhouse gases are higher than in the past 800,000 years, with average CO2 at 419.3ppm as of 2023.  

Paleoclimatology records like ice cores and marine sediments help scientists to understand past climates and estimate future climates. They can compare different emission scenarios with the past to see how future climates may respond. 

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have estimated several trajectories.

The aggressive mitigation scenario expects CO2 concentrations to remain at Pliocene-like concentrations (>350ppm) until 2350. It will still take 100s -1000s of years for concentrations to return to pre-industrial levels.

Under a middle-of-the-road scenario, CO2 peaks at 550ppm, remaining above Pliocene levels for 30,000 years.  

If CO2 reaches 1000ppm, the worst-case scenario suggests concentrations will remain at Mid-Cretaceous levels for 5000 years, Eocene levels for 10,000 years, and Pliocene levels for 300,000 years. It will take 40,000 human generations for CO2 to return to pre-industrial levels.  

Are past climates mirror of future events?
Credit: International Geographical Union

Scientists and governments can then prepare for the extreme consequences of climate change and make net-zero emission targets.

Although the Earth has recovered in the past, the future is uncertain. What will happen to our Ocean and our species? We all have opportunities to ensure a “best-case scenario”.

Antarctic ice cores unlock the past, our actions will unlock the future.  

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Why the Arctic is the fastest warming region on the planet

The changing Ocean climate: Why the Arctic is the fastest warming region

A polar biome brimming with glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice. Home to countless species, but for how much longer?  

The Arctic is extremely sensitive to environmental changes. The increase in global mean air temperature is linked to the excessive melting of Arctic sea ice: one of the most unambiguous indicators of climate change. Since 1978, the yearly minimum Arctic sea ice extent has decreased by ~40%.

Global warming is rapidly taking place due to our greenhouse gas (like carbon dioxide (CO2)) emissions. Our current emission rates of ~40 Gt CO2/year could leave the Arctic ice-free by 2050.  

Our Ocean also plays a role in climate change.  

Barents Sea is the hotspot of global warming: Explained by Ocean Generation

“The hotspot of global warming” – not the nickname you want! 

Unfortunately, this is the nickname the Arctic’s Barents Sea is bestowed. Atlantification (the process by which the warming climate alters the marine ecosystem towards a more temperate (milder) state) is to blame.  

Scientists (though they’re still not 100% sure of all processes involved) have noticed drastic changes in our Ocean where Arctic and Atlantic conditions collide.

Arctic water is colder and less salty than Atlantic water. Thawing ice releases freezing freshwater into the Ocean, keeping Arctic water buoyant. Atlantic water, being warmer and more saline, should sink beneath Arctic water, creating a salinity gradient called a halocline.  

The halocline protects ice from thawing by blocking warm water from rising.

However, because atmospheric temperatures are increasing and melting the ice, and less ice is imported into the Barents Sea, freshwater supplies are dwindling. This disrupts the halocline. Surface winds stir up the Ocean, drawing Atlantic heat upwards to melt the ice.

Atlantification 
and the Arctic halocline explained by Ocean Generation.
Design by Grace Cardwell

Throughout the 2000s, the Barents Sea experienced a 1.5°C warming of the upper 60m of its water column, with sea ice thickness decreasing by 0.62m/decade.  

Plenty of fish in the sea – but are they the right ones?  

Birds are indicators of a changing marine ecosystem.  

After hot winters in Kongfsjord (Norway), Black Legged Kittiwake diets shifted in 2007 from Arctic cod to Atlantic capelin and, as of 2013, herring as their main meal. Whilst Kittiwakes seem to have adapted to their new diet, some species aren’t so lucky…  

The most abundant sea bird in the North Atlantic, the Little Auk, should eat Arctic zooplankton.  

The Little Auks decreased in fitness (the ability to survive and reproduce in a competitive environment) due to Atlantic water inflow. Chick growth rate decreased from six to five grams per day when Atlantic water inflow increased between 5-25% in Horsund (Norway).  

Atlantic zooplankton are a suboptimal food source for the Little Auk because they provide less energy than Arctic zooplankton. Because there is less Arctic prey, chick parents spend time and energy foraging for it and might favour their own maintenance over their chicks.  

Birds are indicators of a changing marine ecosystem
Credit: Black Legged Kittiwake by Yathin S Krishnappa, Little Auk by RSPB

Scientists anticipate the Arctic will have the largest species turnover globally, predicting a northward marine fish species migration of 40km/decade. Atlantic species are already outcompeting Arctic species, which could lead to extinction and changes in the food web. 

Could the killer whale overthrow the polar bear, which has reigned as the top Arctic predator for over 200,000 years?  

Feedback. But not the helpful kind…

In 1896, scientist Svante Arrhenius noticed that Arctic temperature changes were higher relative to lower latitudes. This is known as Arctic Amplification and has occurred for over three million years.  

The main driver of this is the albedo effect. This effect is a positive feedback mechanism, where the result of the mechanism causes the mechanism to repeat itself – in a loop. 

Dark objects absorb 93% of the sun’s energy. When the Arctic receives solar radiation in the spring, melting ice, darker areas are exposed amongst the ice which absorb more solar radiation. This reveals the even darker Ocean, repeating the loop.  

Melt seasons are becoming longer as a warming climate leads to an earlier spring melt and exposes darker areas for longer. The Barents Sea’s ice-free season increases by 40 days per decade.  

Where ice has melted, vegetation replaces tundra. Plants are darker than ice, so this furthers the albedo effect. Permafrost also melts, releasing CO2 and methane (which has 84x the warming effect of CO2 in the first 20 years after its release), contributing to the greenhouse effect and exposing darker ground.  

Since 1979, the Arctic has warmed 
nearly four times faster 
than the rest of the globe. Posted by Ocean Generation, leaders in Ocean education.

We are amplifying these positive feedbacks with greenhouse gas emissions. Since 1979, the Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the rest of the globe, with the most Arctic Amplification observed in autumn and winter.

Positive feedbacks are taking place very quickly, perhaps too quickly for negative feedbacks (like cloud cover) to balance them. Scientists are uncertain about future trajectories. 

In the past, the Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum saw an ice-free Arctic. Is this a mirror of the future?  

What can be done to slow down Arctic warming

Local knowledge aids global governance and monitoring of organisms and landscapes.  

Regional plans like Alaska’s 2017 “Climate Action for Alaska” set targets for reducing emissions.  

Canada’s ArcticNet scheme distributes knowledge for policy development and adaptation strategies, helping Canadians face the challenges and opportunities of socio-economic and climate change.  

The Arctic Council involves international cooperation towards marine and science research. Arctic and non-Arctic states, indigenous representatives and NGOs engage in binding agreements, for example: committing to enhance international Arctic scientific cooperation.  

On a smaller scale, the Arctic Ice Project wants to spread silica beads across the ice to increase reflectivity.  

But it’s clear: further global cooperation is needed. In 2015, The Paris Agreement stated that temperatures shouldn’t rise 2°C above pre-industrial levels, yet global warming is continuing. 

Barents Sea is the hotspot of climate change: Explained by Ocean Generation

What can we do?  

Every tonne of CO2 we emit melts three m2 of Arctic sea ice in the summer.  

To reduce emissions, hold yourself, your country, and the businesses who produce the goods you consume accountable. Walk instead of drive. Switch off lights. Support others fighting for the Arctic.

Don’t just leave it to the scientists. The Arctic isn’t a disappearing, far-away land. Your help, regardless of scale, is necessary for our Ocean to thrive.

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We asked 45 students to design clothing inspired by the Ocean

Woman on the beach, with an Ocean-friendly beach bag sold by Ocean Generation. Whale beach bag. Ocean Generation's clothing products are all sustainable, using organic cotton and 100% renewable energy to manufacture the items.

Behind our Ocean-themed design challenge for illustration students 

It was March 2024. Our Youth Engagement Lead, Gemma, was standing in front of 45 MA Illustration students at the University of Edinburgh – and she had a challenge for them. 

The challenge? Soak up the Ocean science she’d be delivering in our Wavemaker workshop and then, bring it to life through new designs for our sustainable apparel store, inspired by the Ocean.  

Organic cotton whale tote bag, perfect for Ocean lovers. Man carrying a tote bag with a whale design on it. Ocean-friendly clothing is sold by Ocean Generation.
Mother and calf whale fall tote bag by Jingyuan Liu. Get yours here.

Live design brief meets Ocean conservation 

The Live Design Brief – created in consultation with the Illustration Programme Director, Amy – asked the students to ‘re-introduce the Ocean’ to the Ocean Generation community

The challenge provided the students tangible substance of what it means to be strategically creative, meet the requirements of a live client brief and deliver a project that’d be used in the real world. 

What started as an educational Wavemaker workshop resulted in a collection of sustainable clothing inspired by the Oceandesigned by students.  

The students had the opportunity to engage with Ocean Generation at multiple points along their design journey; reflecting the client relationship they’d have when working in the industry.  

How the Wavemaker collection came to life 

BTS of the design process for Ocean lover clothing, designed by students at the University of Edinburgh as part of Ocean Generation's Design Challenge.
Behind the scenes: Ideation session with the students.

STEP 1: Students participated in our Wavemaker Workshop and learned more about the Ocean. 

STEP 2: Gemma and Amy (MA Illustration Programme Director) led an ideation session to get creativity flowing. 

STEP 3: Students pitched initial ideas to Gemma and Amy. 

STEP 4: Students submitted their first drafts for feedback from the Ocean Generation Team. This allowed for client feedback, concept iteration, and facilitated project management skill-building.  

We were so impressed with their initial sketches. Many of the students had done extra research around the Ocean, to inform their work. 

STEP 5: Students submitted final designs to be used on sustainable clothing inspired by the Ocean

STEP 6: The most difficult job yet – choosing the winners!  

Woman on the beach, with an Ocean-friendly beach bag sold by Ocean Generation. Beach bag perfect for Ocean lovers. Ocean Generation's clothing products are all sustainable, using organic cotton and 100% renewable energy to manufacture the items.
Ocean Girl tote bag by Donger Liu. Get yours here.

What did the students learn before designing the collection?  

Why is the Ocean important?

Students learnt about the importance of our Ocean: How it provides us with every second breath we take, covers 70% of our blue planet and gives us the fundamental resources we need to survive. 

We discussed 5 Ocean Threats caused by human action. Think climate change, pollution, coastal infrastructure development, resource extraction and daily Ocean use. And zoomed in on the problem of plastic pollution. We explored incredible Ocean solutions that brilliant Wavemakers across the world have come up with, to help tackle pollution. 

We also talked about some of the amazing creatures in our Ocean and what they provide our world with. For example, whale falls.  

What is a whale fall?

A whale-fall is another name for the death of a whale. Soon after a whale dies, it sinks to the Ocean floor. It provides an essential marine ecosystem as other animals feed on the remains. 

Over 21 marine animals rely on whale-falls to survive. The incredible contribution of whales served as inspiration for two of the final designs are now featured in our Ocean-themed clothing store.  

What stories inspired the sustainable collection?

Gemma had some interesting discussions with students as they developed their designs. 

One of our whale-fall designers, Jingyuan Liu, told us how her design was inspired by the news of a whale mother passing away and her calf using its body to hold up its mother and prevent her from sinking.

This really highlighted the connection between humans and Ocean creatures – each caring for each other, and experiencing grief for our loved ones.  

Seaweed forest puzzle by Shiyan Huang. Get yours here.

Sarah Stegall‘s seal design was inspired by a visit to the beach in La Jolla, California and the group of seals she saw basking in the sunshine.

The experience reminded her that it was the little things in life, like enjoying the sun or observing seals enjoying the sun that can have a lasting impact on us. If we don’t take care of the natural world around us, we’ll begin to lose those little moments in life. 

Clothing inspired by the Ocean, for Ocean lovers  

We’re so excited to share the Designed by You: Wavemakers edition. The collection features 5 designs by 4 graduates of the MA Illustration programme at the University of Edinburgh. You can now purchase these designs, which will support our Ocean education charity.

This is just the beginning for projects like this at Ocean Generation. We’re exploring more ways to facilitate live briefs with different organisations and universities.  

Book us to deliver a project like this  

We offer live briefs in various creative pursuits across the UK, from illustration to theatre and filmmaking to game design.

If you are interested in bringing an experience like this one to your college, university or youth group, please get in touch here.

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The power of water and the science of passive cooling 

The science of passive cooling: A Wavemaker Story posted by Ocean Generation

When interests collide: My love of water and fascination with ancient architecture. 

I have always been fascinated by, and attracted to, water.

My parents would vouch for the fact that I immediately seek out the nearest body of water whenever we have the opportunity to travel… whether that be the warm Caribbean Sea, the stunning beaches of the Hamptons, or the cold glacial lake water in the Adirondacks in Upstate New York. And as a child, they could never get me out of the bathtub!

My natural curiosity and desire to learn has led me to study various subjects of interest in STEM disciplines, and through my university studies I have discovered a genuine passion for ancient architecture and the associated technology and building techniques. 

I’m a huge fan of interdisciplinary research (i.e. combining strategies and information from across disciplines), which leads me to introduce an unlikely connection to our Ocean, or more correctly water, that I discovered while researching the “Scirocco rooms” of Sicily, Italy.

Scirocco Room, where the passive cooling force of water was used.

How water was used to cool scirocco rooms hundreds of years ago. 

The “scirocco rooms” are not rooms in the commonly understood sense, but rather man-made, underground caves. From the art historical perspective, they are important social gathering spaces.

Scirocco rooms were mainly constructed and used in the city of Palermo and rely on ancient technology to facilitate passive cooling. 

During the summer, the dry and sandy Scirocco Winds from the Sahara Desert in Africa blow across to Sicily and send temperatures skyrocketing … to upwards of 40°C! Hence the need for a naturally cooled space, especially before the invention of air conditioning. These “rooms” were lavishly decorated in the 16-19th centuries and used as an escape from the sweltering heat of the summer months.

What is passive cooling anyway?

It is the process of naturally cooling the air flowing through a space without the use of external power or energy. So, the natural cooling properties of convection currents, properties that are hugely amplified in the presence of water, created a comfortably cooled space. 

View leading to the scirocco rooms, where passive cooling was used
Views of the tunnel leading to the scirocco room. On the left is the base of the “wind-tower” and on the right is the qanat (Arabic for ‘canal’), covered today.
Image credit: Saeli, Manfredi and Enrico, 2022. “La Camera Dello Scirocco Di Villa Naselli di Gela A
Palermo.” La Camera Dello Scirocco – Periodico di Arte Cultura e Società.

How passive cooling works in a scirocco room: 

  • Water flows from a natural spring across the terrain of Palermo to the scirocco room. Amazingly, the clay terrain naturally filters the water, and when it arrives in homes, farms or scirocco rooms it is sparkling clean! 
  • The natural course of the water (flowing entirely due to gravity) is diverted into scirocco rooms through man-made canals designed after the Ancient Persian structure called qanat (process explained later in diagram).  
  • The flow of convection currents is enhanced by the evaporation of the water in the canals, cooling the air more and at a faster rate. It’s like when you hop out of the pool in cool weather, you are instantly shivering. 
  • The water is also directed to fountains, pools, and artificial waterfalls. This not only created a pleasant atmosphere aesthetically in scirocco rooms but also made it comfortably cooler for guests. 

So, we can see that the power of water, found everywhere around us and flowing naturally through all sorts of terrain, can be used as a sustainable cooling mechanism, thanks to the natural principles of physics.  

The Ancient Persian technology used to cool scirocco rooms includes qanat (the Arabic word for ‘canal’), to divert water, and “wind-towers”. The “wind-towers” act as the main point of hot air expulsion. These two features are still widespread and regularly used in the Middle East, such as in the city of Yazd in Iran. 

Take a look at the diagrams below to see how these “wind-towers” work and how they amplify the convection currents. 

Here’s what I would like you, dear reader, to take away from my exploration: 

By sharing my research through various formats, including now through this Wavemaker Story, I would like to encourage all readers to uncover any and all of the  wonderful and exciting connections to our Ocean… however unlikely and niche they may seem… and share this with those around you, because you never know how, or who you may inspire.  

I discovered the amazing power of water in a completely un-STEM-related context. I was able to dive deep into the history and science of the use of water in architecture and find that water tied generations of Sicilians together through this architecture.  

Our Ocean, and water specifically, hold great potential for ecological and sustainable solutions to current pressing issues as in the case of passive cooling. Our ancestors knew this quite well and I believe there is much to learn from pre-industrial societies. 

Passive cooling is cooling the air without external power. A Wavemaker Story posted by Ocean Generation

Thank you for raising your voice for the Ocean, Sana!

Learn about how to submit your own Wavemaker Story here.

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Green tourism and Thailand’s unexpected wildlife revival

Green tourism and wildlife revival in Thailand. A Wavemaker Story by Ferra, posted by Ocean Generation

Being well into summer, tourism in Thailand is at its very peak again.

It may not be obvious but the beaches that you see today have undergone a significant recovery during the pandemic. Many called it a miracle in disguise. It was a turning point that allowed for a more sustainable path forward to emerge.  

To understand why, let’s go back in time.  

During the pandemic, I took part in a beach clean-up as a high school community service project. When I arrived, I could see that all the beaches were empty, and it was unusual to see them without people as I have always linked the two together.

However, it was peaceful.

There was a lot less litter than I remember from my visit a few years ago, where there was trash every 5 meters along the coast and floating in the sea. I felt relieved for the Ocean and its community – this was probably the first break it had in a long time. 

Ferra, a Wavemaker took part in a beach clean in Thailand
Photo by Ferra, a Wavemaker

In the south of Thailand, numerous sea creatures such as fish, sharks, turtles and dugongs made unexpected appearances.

There were multiple news reports of locals’ observations of sea life, indicating that there has been a promising recovery of the marine ecosystem. I even saw my first shark in the Ocean at Maya Bay in 2023, a clear and unforgettable sign I witnessed firsthand. 

But it wasn’t always like this.  

As often happens, many of the following problems occur because of us, and our impact. 

Pollution can arise from littering, air emissions, noise, or oil and chemicals. The most prominent is litter, ingested by marine animals or accumulating in Ocean gyres. Microplastics are another significant threat which cause toxic chemicals and disrupt food chains.   

In the Mediterranean Sea, marine litter accumulates 4.7 x faster during the high tourist season. This mostly happens due to too much waste, from lack of resources, food waste and unfamiliarity with waste systems. 

Anchoring and other marine activities damage corals and other marine environments such as seagrass beds. Anchors can impact 7.11% of the coral at popular sites every year. This has severe repercussions as corals are one of the slowest growing creatures – massive ones grow merely 0.3 to 2 cm per year.  

Green tourism in Thailand is the responsible way of travelling
Photo by Ferra, a Wavemaker

How did this crisis turn into opportunity?

With the absence of tourists during the lockdown, conservationists seized the opportunity by repairing 30,000 fragments of coral in Maya Bay, Ko Phi Phi Lee; collecting rubbish and cleaning the beach.  

Moving forward, there will be rules such as limiting the number of tourists per day at popular tourist sites such as Maya Bay, Similan islands and Koh Tachai. Additionally, closing off the island at certain points of the year and increasing the strictness of regulations to move towards a sustainable future. 

Sea creatures such as sharks have made reappearances in Thailand.
Photo by Ferra, a Wavemaker

What is green tourism?

Green tourism is a more responsible way of travelling. It means being mindful of the destination’s natural resources and the local community to minimise our environmental impact.

Nowadays, hotels are being more sustainable by eliminating single use amenities and promoting the re-use of products. When travelling, it’s up to us, too, to make a positive impact.

Here are a few tips to be more sustainable when travelling: 

  • Support local businesses & communities 
  • Bring your own refillable water bottle (if there are no refillable stations, I often ask nearby stores/restaurants which may have large containers of water) 
  • Consider traveling during off-peak season 
  • Take public transport, walk or cycle 
  • Stay on path and avoid interacting with wildlife 
  • Avoid collecting seashells and sand 
  • Do your own research on how you can minimise your impact at the destination you plan on visiting 

After seeing the Ocean come back to life, I felt hopeful that we can indeed restore its health

With green tourism, we can reduce our ecological footprint and make sure that the breathtaking destinations will be there for us and future generations to cherish. I believe that the Ocean and people can thrive together, but for that to last, we must appreciate and take care of it.

After seeing the Ocean come back to life in Thailand, Ferra felt hopeful.

Cover photo by Prinn Vajrabhaya


Thank you for raising your voice for the Ocean, Ferra!

Connect with Ferra via LinkedIn. Learn about how to submit your own Wavemaker Story here.

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