Can traditions become Ocean-friendly? The story of Thailand’s Loy Krathong Festival

Ocean Conscious Future with Traditions, Wavemaker Story posted by Ocean Generation

Our Ocean, rivers, lakes, canals and other bodies of water have provided us with so much for centuries.

They sustain ecosystems, support livelihoods and offer vital resources. It’s no wonder that they are appreciated and celebrated worldwide.  

In Thailand, a full moon night in November, during the Loy Krathong Festival, is dedicated to worshiping the goddess of water. 

The Loy Krathong Festival involves floating a ‘krathong’ (a small floating lantern). This is an act of paying gratitude to the goddess that personifies all bodies of water and apologising to her for polluting the waterways.

Each year, I celebrate Loy Krathong dressed in my traditional Thai dress, making the krathongs and sometimes teaching younger students to do the same. I’ve floated them in a river, swimming pool, pond and even virtually with my school class through a website.  

Thaliand's Loy Krathong Festival involves floating a krathong
Photo credit: Natthanicha Luengvoraphan

This tradition has been ongoing since the 14th century and with a growing population, the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) reported collecting 640,000 krathongs in 2023. With this vast amount, the environmental damage to the waterways cannot be overlooked. 

The materials krathongs are made of make a huge difference

Traditionally krathongs are made using a banana tree trunk, banana leaves, flowers, and candles. In the past, plastic and styrofoam were popular materials but since have reduced in numbers due to awareness of their adverse environmental impacts.  

Materials that do not decompose have numerous impacts on wildlife, human health and economic costs. Aquatic animals can mistakenly ingest these materials or become entangled in them, leading to injuries. Microplastics and chemical leaching can lead to health issues from making their way up to the food chain.

The economic repercussions include the expense of clean-up efforts and the impact on tourism. Polluted waterways could reduce the appeal of natural sites, potentially deterring and disappointing tourists. 

Recently, bread krathongs appeared with the idea that they would leave no waste, as fish would consume them. However, when excessive amounts of bread krathongs were floated, they ended up rotting as not all the bread was consumed. Since then, there has been an increase in the range of feasible creative alternatives. 

Traditional krathongs are made using a banana tree trunk, banana leaves, flowers, and candles. Wavemaker Story, posted by Ocean Generation
Photo credit: Natthanicha Luengvoraphan, Wavemaker

How is the tradition of the Loy Krathong Festival becoming more sustainable? 

BMA reports that 96.75% of the krathongs were made with environmentally friendly materials in 2023, a 1.05% increase from the previous year. In recent years, there has been a huge experimentation of materials people have brought to celebrate with. Some examples include ice, coconut shell, and cassava which take a short time to disintegrate. 

Technology and innovation can be used to our advantage in allowing people to participate in events like Loy Krathong Festival without physically floating krathongs to reduce environmental impact.

In 2023, a technology known as projection mapping allowed visitors to doodle their krathong design on paper. These were then projected onto a river in Bangkok where 3,000 digital krathongs were floated. There are also multiple online platforms where people can write out their wishes and watch an animated krathong float across the screen within the comfort of their own homes.

Seeing how tradition and environmental responsibility can go hand in hand 
is encouraging to witness.
Photo credit: REUTERS/Thomas Suen/ File photo

For those who still want to continue the tradition in its original form, people are embracing the practice of floating one krathong per family or group of friends to reduce the number of krathongs that need to be collected. 

Experimentation and exchange of ideas can create a ripple effect, leading to more impactful solutions that enable more people to help continue tradition responsibly while enjoying it in new and innovative ways. 

Seeing how tradition and environmental responsibility can go hand in hand is encouraging to witness. It’s inspiring to see how people are becoming aware of their environmental impact, striving for greater sustainability through creativity and innovation.

This is just one example of a tradition that demonstrates how cultural practices can adapt to modern environmental challenges. As we continue to innovate and integrate sustainability into various customs, it is clear that we hold power and capability in honoring both heritage and the health of our Ocean. 

Loy Krathong Festival is a tradition that demonstrates how cultural practices can adapt to modern environmental challenges
Photo credit: Natthanicha Luengvoraphan

Thank you for raising your voice for the Ocean, Ferra!

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How Climate Change threatens polar species: Polar bears, Orcas and Narwhals 

How Climate Change threatens polar species: Polar bears, Orcas and Narwhals

Many polar species depend on sea ice for essential activities like resting, hunting, and avoiding predators but climate change poses a threat.

Polar species have finely tuned their behaviours, and physiological traits to the seasonal advance and retreat of sea ice.

However, as sea temperatures rise and the Arctic (in the Northern Hemisphere) warms at four times the global average rate, sea ice is shrinking and breaking up earlier each year.

This trend presents growing challenges for polar species that rely on ice, highlighting just how important it is to tackle climate change to ensure their survival. 

How polar bears are impacted by climate change 

Characterised by their large size, dense white fur, and flattened cranium, polar bears are apex predators in the Arctic ecosystem. Their primary prey are ice-dependent seals, particularly ringed and bearded seals. 

Seals use the ice as a platform for resting, breeding, and giving birth. Using an ambush technique, polar bears wait at seal breathing holes, catching seals as they come up for air. This saves them energy compared to more active hunting methods.

Ringed and bearded seals in the Arctic, posted by Ocean Generation

Polar bears’ hunting success peaks in the spring and early summer, coinciding with the weaning period of seal pups. This makes it a critical time for the bears to build fat reserves essential for survival through winter. 

Climate change delays sea ice formation in autumn, and it’s reducing the time available for hunting seals later in the year. As a result, it’s becoming increasingly difficult for polar bears to build or maintain their fat reserves. 

Increased fragmentation of sea ice also forces polar bears to swim longer distances to reach stable ice. In some regions, polar bears have been recorded swimming over 50km. This is an energy draining task for these not-so efficient swimmers, due to their paddling motion and the added drag of swimming at the water’s surface.

Polar bears wait at seal breathing holes

With summer sea ice disappearing, polar bears are becoming more dependent on food sources on land. These offer far less nutrition compared to the energy-rich blubber of seals and increases human-wildlife conflict. 

They are currently listed as Vulnerable under the IUCN Red List (last assessed in 2015), facing threats from residential and commercial development, human disturbance and climate change. 

How narwhals are impacted by climate change 

Narwhals, distinguished by their long, protruding tusks, are remarkable divers capable of reaching depths of up to 1,500 meters in pursuit of prey. Their diet primarily consists of fish (Greenland halibut in particular), cephalopods (such as squid), and crustaceans.  

Narwhals depend on breathing holes in the ice to survive

To support their slow, endurance swimming, narwhals have evolved a high proportion of specialised slow-twitch muscles, which make up about 90% of the muscle fibre in their bodies. These muscles are rich in myoglobin. This is an oxygen-binding protein that enhances their ability to store and use oxygen efficiently during extended dives.

Narwhals, like other marine mammals, depend on the stability of breathing holes in the ice to survive. However, climate change has made these ice conditions increasingly unpredictable, leading to entrapment and fatalities for narwhals when they can’t locate a breathing hole. 

Their narrow temperature range coupled with strong attachment to specific locations and migratory routes makes them particularly vulnerable in the rapidly warming Arctic.

Currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (last assessed in 2023), narwhals are increasingly threatened by climate change, as well as energy production and mining activities. 

How orcas are impacted by climate change 

Orcas inhabit the Oceans worldwide, ranging from polar regions to tropical waters. They are categorised into three distinct forms, A, B and C, with type B exhibiting cooperative hunting behaviour in pursuit of seals. In these strategies, family group members work together to create synchronised waves that wash seals off the ice.  

Orcas find new opportunities in the changing polar regions

When searching for potential prey, orcas adapt their travel behaviours to the surrounding ice conditions. In open water with minimal ice, they tend to stay close together, while in pack ice, they spread out and often travel as individuals or pairs.

Near ice floes (thin sheets of frozen seawater), individuals engage in spy-hopping to locate seals, taking multiple views from various angles around the edge of the floe.

After observing, they swim away briefly to vocalise and communicate with other group members before returning. 

Before attacking, the whales swim together in loose formation, often rolling at the surface. They move side-by-side away from the ice floe before charging back rapidly in a coordinated manner, generating waves as they approach.  

Depending on the size of the floe, they create two distinct wave types. One is a breaking wave for smaller floes that can wash seals directly into the water, the other is a non-breaking wave for larger floes that shatters the ice and drives seals off. 

Many Arctic marine species use frozen areas as a refuge from orcas.

Bowhead whales, which can break through the sea ice to create breathing holes, face few predators besides humans and orcas. However, as sea ice shrinks, orcas are increasingly detected in Arctic waters.  

Many polar species use frozen areas as a refuge from orcas, but climate change and shrinking sea ice threatens them. Posted by Ocean Generation

While this provides new prey opportunities for these apex predators, it could significantly stress prey species, potentially altering their behaviour and population sizes. For example, the specialised locomotor muscles of narwhals make them too slow to escape orcas. 

Moreover, the increased presence of orcas may impact indigenous communities that rely on subsistence hunting to sustain their way of life.  

Orcas are currently listed as Data Deficient under the IUCN Red List (last assessed in 2017). This highlights the need for more research to comprehensively understand population trends and conservation priorities. 

Turning climate challenges into opportunities 

The survival of polar species is increasingly threatened by climate change, which leads to shrinking sea ice and altered ecosystems.

These changes not only challenge the feeding and breeding behaviours of these animals but also affect indigenous communities that depend on these species for their livelihoods.

We can help through supporting conservation organisations, taking climate action, advocating for policy change, engaging in sustainable practices, and raising awareness about our impacts on polar ecosystems.  

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Surviving the Polar Regions: Animal strategies and adaptations 

Surviving the polar regions, animal strategies and adaptations. Explained by Ocean Generation

The polar regions are among Earth’s most unique environments 

Characterised by low temperatures, limited food availability, harsh climates and extreme seasonality, it’s challenging to live in the polar regions. Species inhabiting the Arctic and Antarctic have evolved various physiological, morphological (structural), and behavioural adaptations to survive in these challenging conditions.

Where is the Arctic? Where is the Antarctic

The Arctic is in the Northern hemisphere whereas Antarctica is in the Southern hemisphere.

Iconic Arctic species include the polar bear, Arctic fox, narwhal, walrus, and bearded seal.  

In contrast, the Antarctic is home to species such as the leopard seal, Emperor and Adélie penguins, and rock ptarmigan (a medium-sized game bird). 

Iconic Arctic and Antarctic animals, posted by Ocean Generation.

Slow and steady is key to survival. 

Temperature has a major impact on how fast species develop. A pattern of slow development rates has been observed among Antarctic marine ectotherms (species that rely on the environment to regulate their body temperature). 

For example, the development rates of marine larvae are slower at low temperatures compared to those in temperate and tropical regions. This is likely due to lower temperatures reducing protein synthesis and folding, resulting in fewer functional proteins available for growth.  

With the close link between metabolism and development, polar species tend to have slower metabolic rates and use up minimal energy. Antarctic Nototheniodei fish, for instance, have evolved with reduced quantities of red blood cells and haemoglobin , the protein responsible for transporting oxygen throughout the body.

This reduction in haemoglobin reflects their lower metabolic rates and oxygen demands compared to species in warmer, temperate climates.  Slow metabolism and development are key to surviving with the limited food available in the polar regions.  

Slow metabolism and development are key to surviving in the polar regions.

How species cope with food scarcity in the polar regions 

The polar regions experience dramatic seasonal shifts in solar radiation, with continuous daylight in the summer and nearly total darkness in the winter.  

This is accompanied by blizzards, freezing temperatures and limited food availability.  

During winter, reduced sunlight limits the growth of primary producers like phytoplankton and plants, which in turn affects the entire food chain. Additionally, the sea ice that forms over the Ocean restricts access to open water, where many marine animals feed. Snow cover makes it more challenging for land animals to access their food sources.  

For some animals, these harsh winter conditions are too extreme, and they migrate to more favourable areas. For those that remain, many build up fat reserves during the summer and early autumn to prepare for the limited food availability.  

How animals cope with food scarcity in the polar regions

In the Svalbard rock ptarmigan, for example, these fat reserves are primarily used during episodes of acute starvation rather than supplementing daily energy needs.

Some animals also exhibit surplus killing and hoarding behaviour in the summer, such as the Arctic fox. The fox has been observed storing food, with one cache containing as many as 136 seabirds.   

Many animals will limit physical activity to conserve their energy and reduce their resting metabolic rate. This refers to the amount of energy the body uses at rest to maintain basic physiological functions.

Adult King penguins can go without food for up to one month. Meanwhile, chicks can endure fasting for up to five months during the subantarctic winter, losing up to 70% of their body mass while relying mostly on stored fat reserves. 

Pregnant female polar bears accumulate up to 40% of their body mass as fat before entering dens in late autumn. Here, they hibernate through the winter to conserve energy during periods of food scarcity.  

During hibernation, they refrain from eating, urinating, defecating, instead recycling urea to conserve protein and relying solely on fat reserves for energy. Polar bears also have an exceptional sense of smell. They’re capable of detecting prey from as far as 32 km away and seals beneath compacted ice from 1 km away

Small invertebrates that live on the seafloor, or meiofauna, have adapted to polar environments by feeding on degraded organic matter, which remains available year-round.  

In many Arctic marine mammals, the milk produced for their young is exceptionally rich in energy and nutrients, which is vital for the pups to survive in the harsh, cold environment.  

How animals cope with freezing temperatures, explained by Ocean Generation, leaders in Ocean education

How species cope with freezing temperatures 

Air temperatures in the polar regions can occasionally drop to -60°C, while Ocean temperatures are close to freezing. To maintain a stable core temperature, organisms must employ strategies to minimise heat loss through conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation. 

One common adaptation is the evolution of a rounded body shape to reduce exposed surface area. For instance, walruses have a large, tubular body with minimal projecting extremities, such as visible ears or a tail, reducing heat loss through conduction and convection.  

Rounded body shapes help cope with freezing temperatures of the polar regions.

Many polar species develop dense fur for insulation, such as reindeer and caribou (also a species of deer), whose hollow guard hairs provide air-filled cavities for additional warmth. In marine animals, where fur offers little insulation value, a thick layer of blubber becomes essential for protection against cold seas. It also serves as a food reserve.

Many species have evolved sophisticated blood flow regulation systems in body parts exposed to the cold. In marine mammals, a network of blood vessels in the flippers operates as a counter-current heat exchange system. This is when warm blood flows to the flipper transferring heat to cooler blood returning from it. This adaptation allows them to conserve heat in critical areas while maintaining functionality in their extremities. 

Moreover, both Arctic and Antarctic fish have independently evolved antifreeze glycoproteins, which are secreted into their blood to prevent the formation of harmful ice crystals. These compounds are produced during the cold winter months in Arctic fish and year-round in Antarctic fish. 

Behavioural adaptations also play a key role in survival 

Emperor penguins form large huddles in extreme Antarctic cold and wind, with groups consisting of hundreds of individuals. The penguins take turns occupying the warmer centre of the huddle, where ambient temperatures can reach 37.5°C, helping conserve energy and incubate eggs during the winter.  

Emperor penguins form huddles to shelter from the cold

Snow place like home 

Survival in the polar regions requires a combination of physiological, morphological and behavioural adaptations, enabling species to endure extreme cold, limited food availability and harsh climatic conditions.  

As climate change continues to alter these environments, the ability of polar species to adapt will be crucial for their ongoing survival in an increasingly warming world. 

Check out How Climate Change threatens polar species: Polar bears, Orcas and Narwhals, where we discuss the opportunities and challenges for animals in a changing world.  

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Balancing conservation and community in polar wildlife conflicts 

Balancing community and conservation in polar wildlife conflicts

Addressing human-wildlife conflict is essential for both wildlife conservation and human well-being. 

As human populations expand into natural habitats, finding solutions that promote coexistence between people and wildlife becomes increasingly important. By fostering harmony, we can support thriving species, healthy ecosystems, and positive relationships between local communities and conservation efforts.

Reducing conflicts benefits wildlife and eases financial losses for local communities. It also aligns with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals by enhancing livelihoods, building community resilience, and creating economic opportunities for local populations. 

Mitigating human-wildlife conflict on land 

Climate change intensifies human-wildlife conflict by changing the historical range and behaviour of wild species, increasing the frequency of interactions between humans and wildlife.

Climate change intensifies human-wildlife conflict. Posted by Ocean Generation, leaders in Ocean education.

While addressing climate change is key to reducing these conflicts, communities can adopt strategies to minimise interactions with conflicting species. Some of these approaches are listed below: 

  • Fencing key resources, such as livestock, and securing protected areas. Planting buffer crops could also reduce wildlife consuming important resources.  
  • Implementing animal-safe food storage facilities and improving waste management systems can prevent wildlife from being attracted to human food sources. 
  • Integrating guarding measures, such as specialised livestock-guarding dogs or patrol officers, into resource protection could provide early warning signs to alert residents to potential conflicting wildlife. 
  • The use of non-lethal deterrents, such as visual, chemical, and acoustic repellents, can further discourage wildlife from approaching human settlements and resources.  
  • Economic costs of conflicts could also be reduced through compensation schemes, alternative income generation, or increasing wildlife-related tourism. 

A better understanding of animal movement can help predict high-risk areas and times, allowing for more targeted mitigation efforts. For example, researchers studying moose found that the risk of vehicle collisions increases in winter when snow depth is below 120 cm and nighttime traffic is higher due to longer nights.

This highlights the need for seasonally adaptive strategies to mitigate such risks.  

Mitigating human-wildlife conflict in the Ocean

Fishers have several options to minimise encounters with marine mammals.

Ocean mammals often become entangled in fishing lines

Mammals often collide with or become entangled in vertical lines attached to buoys, which mark where nets have been set. To prevent wildlife harm and gear damage, fishers could reduce the number of vertical lines in the water column or use ropes in colours more visible to mammals.

Common rope colors like yellow, green, or blue may be difficult for whales to detect. Switching to colours such as white, black, or striped patterns could make the ropes more visible to whales, potentially helping them avoid entanglement.

Another approach involves weakening lines so that entangled animals can break free more easily. However, this solution can result in financial losses due to reduced catch and replacing lost gear. 

Technological innovations, such as acoustic buoy releases that surface only when triggered, could eliminate the need for vertical lines. Another potential solution is the use of pingers, which are devices placed on lines that emit noises at specific frequencies to warn whales and other marine mammals away from boats and fishing gear.

Fisheries-have-several-options-to-minimise-encounters-with-marine-animals

While these strategies could help reduce human-wildlife conflict in fisheries, more testing is needed to see how effective they are. Supportive initiatives, like financial compensation programs to cover losses from wildlife, can ease the economic strain on fishers and encourage the use of non-lethal deterrents. 

Collaboration between scientists and communities is key to solving these challenges. For example, the Alaska Longline Fishermen’s Association partnered with biologists and bioacoustic experts in 2003 to study whale behaviour and minimise interactions with longline boats. This led to the creation of the Southeast Alaska Whale Avoidance Project (SEASWAP), a successful project improving our understanding of depredation.  

Balancing conservation and community needs 

The key to addressing human-wildlife conflict involves recognising and valuing the diverse attitudes towards conservation that influence both the conflict and resolution.

By appreciating the different perspectives of stakeholders, conservation plans can be designed to address the needs and interests of everyone involved. Engaging meaningfully with communities is key to developing policies that are not only effective but also widely supported. 

Balancing conservation and community to mitigate polar wildlife conflicts, posted by Ocean generation

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Bearly coexisting: Human-wildlife conflict in the polar regions 

Human-wildlife conflict in the polar regions: Explained by Ocean Generation

As human populations grow, we’re getting closer to natural habitats, leading to increased interactions with wildlife.

Conflict arises when wildlife presence poses real or perceived costs to human interests or needs, like loss of livestock, crop raiding or attacks on humans. 

Human-wildlife conflict can have negative impacts on wildlife and can also affect community dynamics, commodity production, and sustainable development.

Conservation biologists are increasingly concerned about human-wildlife conflict in the polar regions – the Arctic in the Northern Hemisphere and Antarctic in the Southern Hemisphere.  

Why is human-wildlife conflict increasing in the polar regions

The polar regions are characterised by low temperatures, extreme seasonality, and the seasonal advance and retreat of sea ice. Both polar regions are home to numerous endemic species, but their survival is threatened by climate change, fishing, tourism, invasive species, and pollution.

Experts are concerned about human-wildlife conflict in the polar regions. Posted by Ocean Generation.

These pressures often lead to more frequent encounters between people and wildlife, especially in the Arctic where around 4 million people live.  

A recent study on protecting Antarctic biodiversity found that current conservation efforts are insufficient. It’s predicted that around 65% of land animals and land-associated seabirds could decline by 2100 if global greenhouse gas emissions continue on their >2°C trajectory.  The study suggests several ways to boost conservation efforts, such as: 

  • Improving the quality of land that has been polluted or negatively impacted by human use 
  • Managing infrastructure
  • Protecting areas 
  • Controlling non-native species and diseases 

How does human-wildlife conflict appear in the polar regions? 

Encounters between people and polar bears

Polar bears are an iconic Arctic species, distributed across 19 subpopulations within five countries: the United States, Canada, Greenland, Norway, and Russia. They rely on sea ice for hunting (primarily seals), breeding, and resting. 

With climate change accelerating and sea ice diminishing, polar bears are forced to spend more time on land. Here finding natural food sources becomes challenging, so they often seek out human settlements for a predictable source of nutrition.

The town of Churchill, Manitoba, Canada, is famously known as the ‘polar bear capital of the world’ due to the Western Hudson Bay population that pass through the town each summer and autumn. 

Polar bears often seek out human settlements for food

Between the 1940s and 1980s, these bears regularly visited a waste disposal site, feeding on scraps that caused property damage, human injuries, and malnutrition for the bears. The food waste was often insufficient in fat and contaminated with plastics, metals, and wood. 

Efforts to manage the problem included better waste management, relocating bears, temporarily housing them at a holding facility until Hudson Bay froze, or, in some cases, lethal removal. 

The Government of Manitoba has since closed the dump site and established the Polar Bear Alert Program to minimise the need for lethal measures and reduce conflicts with bears.

As polar bear encounters become more frequent, the significance of this program is expected to grow.

How orcas and Arctic foxes hunting impact communities

Sometimes predators feed on animals of economic and ecological importance to people. These are depredation events (events that cause damage or destruction). 

Depredation events often happen in the polar regions. Posted by Ocean Generation

Mammals in the Arctic Ocean are increasingly observed preying on fish caught by commercial and recreational fishing boats. Longline fishing, which involves the use of baited hooks on a long line, is currently the most severely affected by depredation across both hemispheres, primarily by toothed whales, such as orcas and sperm whales.

These depredation events can result in financial losses for fishers who face difficulties due to reduced catch and often face costs for repairing damaged fishing gear. These interactions can also harm wildlife through injuries or fatalities caused by entanglement with fishing gear and responses from fishers.

Orcas, otherwise known as killer whales, are frequently involved in depredation events in polar regions. It’s been suggested that their group hunting behaviour enables orcas to effectively remove fish from longlines.  

These animals are highly social and live in tightly knit family groups, known as pods. Research suggests that pods which overlap geographically can communicate and share information. It’s thought that this cultural transmission is causing depredation behaviour to spread throughout western Alaska.  

Depredation on land is also a concern, particularly with Arctic foxes preying on reindeer calves 

In the Yamal Peninsula, traditional reindeer herding practices are central to the lives of the indigenous Nenet people of Arctic Russia. However, reindeer mortality has increased due to factors such as pasture icing (explained later), disease outbreaks, and predation by Arctic foxes.

Arctic foxes prey on reindeer calves in Arctic Russia

The population growth of arctic foxes has been fueled by the collapse of the fur trade in the 1990s, which reduced hunting pressure. Industrial expansion also provided waste for foxes to feed on, further supporting their population increase. 

Climate change worsens the issue by causing abnormal weather conditions, such as freezing rain and rapid temperature fluctuations, which lead to pasture icing. This occurs when a thick layer of ice forms over grazing land, trapping vegetation and making it inaccessible to livestock and wildlife. As a result, weakened reindeer become easier prey for foxes, while more carcasses are left for scavenging.

Finding solutions for people and wildlife 

Human-wildlife conflict in the polar regions presents challenges, especially with the added pressures of climate change and other stressors.

However, finding solutions that harmonise conservation goals with community needs can lead to positive outcomes for both people and wildlife. Check out our article on Balancing Conservation and Community in Polar Wildlife Conflicts for strategies to effectively manage and resolve human-wildlife conflict. 

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Why does the climate change?

Why does the climate change? Explained by Ocean Generation.

The Earth’s climate has changed naturally for billions of years, but human emissions are rewriting the story.  

Scientists know that the Earth’s climate has always changed by itself, even before humans existed.  

The climate changed in a pattern for the past 800,000 years. Every 100,000 years, the Earth entered a warm period, called an “interglacial”, lasting 15,000-20,000 years. Between these periods, ice ages called “glacials” dominated.  

Changes to the climate that caused these glacials and interglacials in the past can be explained by natural forcings. These are forces that act upon Earth’s climate, causing a change in how energy flows through it e.g., greenhouse gases.  

What are some natural forcings? 

1. Milankovitch Cycles 

Milutin Milankovitch, a mathematician, discovered three “Milankovitch” cycles.  

Over the past 800,000 years, these were the dominant causes of climate variability because they affect the amount of solar heat that can reach the Earth’s surface.

Eccentricity occurs every 100,000 years, corresponding with interglacials. Sometimes Earth’s elliptical orbit is more circular, which keeps the Earth at an equal distance from the Sun. When the orbit is more elliptical, Earth’s distance from the Sun changes. When Earth is closer, the climate is warmer. 

Obliquity, Earth’s axial tilt, changes between 22.1° to 24.5° every 41,000 years. Larger angles cause warmer summers and colder winters.   

Every 19,000 – 24,000 years, Precession impacts seasonal contrasts between the hemispheres and the timing of seasons. The Earth wobbles on its axis due to the gravitational pull of the Sun and moon, changing where the North Pole points.  

Milankovitch cycles are long term changes that affect the climate
Design by Grace Cardwell

2. Sunspots  

Every 11 years, the Sun gets spots when its magnetic field increases. The temperature is lowered in this area, influencing the amount of solar radiation warming Earth.

3. Changes in Ocean currents

Ocean currents carry heat around the Earth. When the Ocean absorbs more heat from the atmosphere, sea surface temperatures increase, and Ocean circulation patterns change. Different areas become colder or warmer. 

Because the Ocean stores a lot of heat, small changes can have massive effects on the global climate. A warmer Ocean can’t absorb as much carbon dioxide (CO2) and will evaporate more water vapour. Both contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming.  

4. Volcanic eruptions

Volcanoes spew out sulphur dioxide and ash, which blocks solar radiation and cools the atmosphere. CO2 released in the eruption eventually overpowers this to increase temperatures, but this is only equivalent to 1% of human emissions.  

5. Meteorite and Asteroid impacts

66 million years ago, an asteroid hit the Earth on Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula. Scientists call this the Chicxulub Impact, and it drove the extinction that killed 60% of all species, including all non-flying dinosaurs.

Lots of sulphur, soot and dust entered the atmosphere, blocking out the Sun. Temperatures plummeted 15°C, causing a 15-year winter.   

Natural forcings explained by Ocean Generation.

Some climate change and emissions are unavoidable

But natural forcings are too gradual or irregular to cause current climate change.  

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states “the observed widespread warming of the atmosphere and Ocean, together with ice mass loss, support the conclusion that it is extremely unlikely that global climate change of the past fifty years can be explained without external forcing, and very likely that it is not due to known natural causes alone”.   

Just right or too hot? 

Greenhouse gases are natural, to an extent.  

Some solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, hitting the Earth. Most of this is reflected into space, but some is absorbed by greenhouse gases and re-directed back to Earth.

This keeps Earth just right (Earth is called the “Goldilocks” planet!).

People are emitting too many greenhouse gases, too quickly. Therefore, more heat is trapped in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.  

Greenhouse effect explained: normal and rampant CO2
Credit: National Park Service

How are people causing climate change? 

External forcings” are things we’re doing that release extra greenhouse gases.

1. Power  

We burn fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas to make electricity and heat. This releases carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide to the atmosphere. Half of this electricity powers our buildings.

Globally, only about ¼ of our electricity comes from wind, solar and other renewable sources.  

Some people use more power than others: the richest 1% of the global population combined account for more greenhouse gases than the poorest 50%.

2. Food and Manufacturing  

To make goods like steel and plastic, fossil fuels are burnt to power factory machines and many other processes. Manufacturing is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.

Food production emits greenhouse gases at various stages. Livestock and rice farming releases methane, fertilisers release nitrous oxides, and carbon dioxide is released to make packaging and transport the food.  

How are people causing climate change: Explained by Ocean Generation.

3. Deforestation

In places like the Amazon Rainforest, trees are cut down to make space for farming and houses. From 2003 – 2023, 54.2 million hectares of rainforest was lost there.

When trees are cut down, they release locked up carbon. With fewer trees, less CO2 absorption can take place. Land use changes make up ¼ of greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Transport  

Cars, ships and planes all burn fossil fuels such as petrol. This makes up ¼ of global energy-related CO2 emissions. This graph shows our impact on the atmosphere: 

This graph shows our impact on the atmosphere.

Don’t put the blame on natural forcings 

Now we know current climate change is down to us; everyone has a responsibility to reduce their emissions. Have a look and see what you can do!  

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